Persian was selected as another language for the inclusion of the abstracts and papers in this study, especially for searching in Iranian journals databases. The diagnosis of an amphetamine problem (abuse, dependence or use disorder) needed to be confirmed according to a validated measure such as different versions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Randomised clinical or controlled trials (RCTs) were selected if they were related to one of the study aims. Any type of pharmacological treatment for an amphetamine problem was acceptable for study inclusion. BCBT needed to be conducted in agreement with the principles of Baker and colleagues’ treatment guide 9. BCBT refers to teaching patients to identify, evaluate and respond to their dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs and use a number of techniques to change thinking, mood and behaviours in less than ten session of psychotherapy 9. Health Challenges Volkow and colleagues have performed an enormous body of research using PET and other brain imaging techniques to explore the relationship between DAT occupancy, synaptic dopamine concentration and dopamine D2 receptor occupancy for psychostimulant drugs of abuse. The desired goal of pharmacotherapy will likely vary depending on the patient, and must be patient-focused and clinically relevant. There were 75 distinct secondary outcomes inclusive of variations and often analysed differently to the primary outcomes of the same domain. In another study (Cruickshank 2008), participants were administered 15 mg of mirtazapine on the first two nights and 30 mg mirtazapine every night for the next 12 nights. Following a 3-week, open-label run-in period where the dose of MES-amphetamine XR was optimised to 10, 20 or 30 mg once a day, subjects were then randomised into a 3-way double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial. On the primary and secondary efficacy variables of behaviour, attention and problem solving, lisdexamfetamine delivered equivalent or better efficacy than MES-amphetamine XR with both drugs being maximally effective at 2 h post-dose (Biederman et al., 2007a). However, on the problem-solving endpoints, it was also evident that lisdexamfetamine maintained its maximum effect for at least 12 h, whereas the effect of MES-amphetamine XR showed a clear decline after 6–8 h (Biederman et al., 2007a). A post-hoc analysis of the data also showed that the sex and age of the subjects had no significant influence on the efficacy of lisdexamfetamine (Wigal et al., 2010b). The primary action of amphetamine is to increase synaptic concentrations of monoamine neurotransmitters, thereby indirectly enhancing noradrenergic, dopaminergic neurotransmission in the CNS. Although amphetamine’s isomers are also powerful 5-HT-releasing agents in vivo (Heal et al., 1998; Kuczenski et al., 1995), this action does not appear to contribute to their efficacy in treating ADHD. This opinion is based on clinical experience with fenfluramine, which is a chemical analogue of amphetamine and a powerful releasing agent with a preferential action on 5-HT (Baumann et al., 2000; Gundlah et al., 1997; Tao et al., 2002). Types of amphetamines You should take FDA-approved amphetamines orally (by mouth) as directed by your healthcare provider. NL had the idea for this systematic review; KJS, LSA, NL, and NE designed the study; KJS and LSA performed the literature search and data analyses; KJS drafted the first manuscript; LSA, NL and NE critically revised the manuscript. A summary of the reviewed studies is presented in Table 4, and an extended version is available in Supplementary Table 1 (see ESM). In addition, the data collected by both reviewers can be located in its entirety in the Supplementary Data (see ESM). We approached this report as a systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature, and present the methods and results in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement 22. Preventing drug misuse in children and teenagers Furthermore, data were inadequate to measure effect sizes for some outcome measures. No studies were located that analysed treatment outcomes by gender, although the importance of gender differences and treatment outcomes have been reported in the research literature 28, 29. Papers needed to be published either in English or have a published abstract in English. What Are the Treatment Options for Amphetamine Addiction? Tolerance develops slowly, but amounts several 100-fold greater than the amount originally used may eventually be ingested or injected. Tachycardia and increased alertness diminish, but hallucinations and delusions may occur. Amphetamines are sympathomimetic drugs with central nervous system stimulant and euphoriant properties whose toxic adverse effects include delirium, hypertension, seizures, and hyperthermia (which can cause rhabdomyolysis and renal failure). Toxicity is managed with supportive care, including IV benzodiazepines (for agitation, hypertension, and seizures) and cooling techniques (for hyperthermia). Two reviewers participated in searching the literature (M.E and A.M; the firth author). Studies including titles and abstracts identified by electronic searches were assessed and screened by one author (M. E). “Doctors are going to be reading about it and may prescribe the medications off-label to their patients,” Volkow says. Volkow says one theory is that naltrexone reduced physiological cravings for meth, while buproprion’s “antidepressant effects” eased the anxiety people experience when they stop using. A comparison of the mean peak increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure produced by intravenous versus oral administration of 50 mg lisdexamfetamine. Some studies have suggested about 30% of patients with amphetamine-induced psychosis end up with a primary psychosis over time. Four studies, involving 125 participants, met Amphetamine Addiction the inclusion criteria for this review (seeCharacteristics of included studies). In total, 59 participants received treatment for amphetamine withdrawal (37 amineptine, 22 mirtazapine) compared to 66 participants who received placebo. Few studies examined treatments for amphetamine withdrawal, although it is a common problem among amphetamine users. Its symptoms, in particular intense craving, may be a critical factor leading to relapse to amphetamine use. Treatment Patients received injections of extended-release naltrexone and oral doses of bupropion. It is also important to give a healthcare professional all the facts so that they can work with a person to develop the best possible treatment plan for them as an individual. Depending on what type and

Amphetamines are very powerful drugs that affect your central nervous system and how your brain interacts with your body. Talk with your healthcare provider if you feel like you are dependent on amphetamines or if they are not working to alleviate your symptoms. Providers will monitor how your body reacts to amphetamines to see if they alleviate your symptoms and prevent side effects, especially addiction. A person’s tolerance begins slowly, which could result in dependence over time. If you take amphetamines and feel you are dependent on the drug, talk with your healthcare provider. Of the 4065 participants reported on in the reviewed studies, 2858 (70.3%) were male. What Are Amphetamine Overdose Symptoms? Studies were considered at high risk of bias if they used some systematic, non‐random approach, i.e. date of birth, date of admission, clinic record number, by clinician. In the original review, reports identified by the electronic searches were assessed for relevance. Two reviewers (MS & NJ) independently inspected all study citations Amphetamine Addiction identified by the electronic searches and full reports of the studies of agreed relevance were obtained. Where disputes arose the full reports were acquired for more detailed scrutiny. The reviewers (MS & NJ) then independently inspected all these full study reports. All searches included non‐English language literature and studies with English abstracts were assessed for inclusion. Outpatient Treatment Programs Some users experience a prolonged depression, during which suicide is possible. Amphetamines rank as a schedule II/IIN controlled substance (2/2N), which means that there is a high potential for the drug to cause physical dependence (addiction). Both amphetamine and methamphetamine are stimulant drugs that have different effects on your body based on the chemicals that make up each drug. While there are promising candidates, no pharmacotherapy for the treatment of AMPH/MA dependence/use disorder has provided convincing results. acute intoxication or withdrawal Otherwise, no treatment is generally needed for people experiencing withdrawal. Because some amphetamines are widely used as treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, obesity, and narcolepsy, there is a ready supply that can be diverted to illegal use. Some amphetamines are not approved for medical use and are manufactured and used illegally. Amphetamines are stimulant drugs that are used to treat certain medical conditions but are also subject to abuse. Cruickshank 2008 published and unpublished data In 2020, about 5.1 million people in the United States reported misusing prescription stimulants, such as Adderall, within the past year. In vitro experiments revealed that the metabolism of lisdexamfetamine to d-amphetamine occurs in red blood cells by rate-limited enzymatic hydrolysis (Pennick, 2010). Smith, Kline and French introduced Benzedrine onto the market in 1935 as a treatment for narcolepsy (for which it is still used today), mild depression, post-encephalitic Parkinsonism and a raft of other disorders (see Bett, 1946; Guttmann and Sargent, 1937; Tidy, 1938). Furthermore, overall reduced criminality 20, 21, improved motivation to change and self-efficacy 21, 23 as well as improved physical and mental health 20, 21 were found among both the treatment and control groups in some studies. In conducting a meta‐analysis, a fixed effect model, an analysis that ignores the between‐study variation, can give a narrower confidence interval than a random effect model. It is generally agreed that the fixed effect model is valid as a test of significance of the overall null hypothesis (i.e. ‘no effect in all studies’). A statistically significant result obtained by the use of this model indicated that there is an effect in at least one of the studies. Because of these advantages, the fixed effect model was used for the synthesis of a group of data with homogeneity. Many teenage patients stop using despite the drugs having clear benefits for their school performance; they cite reasons such as feeling too controlled, wanting empowerment from medication, etc. While there are few medications that have been evaluated, amphetamine withdrawal seems a reasonable target for developing a medication to aid individuals in instilling amphetamine abstinence. Chronic amphetamine abusers seeking treatment must successfully resolve amphetamine withdrawal when establishing sustained abstinence from the drug. It remains unknown whether improved outcomes in successfully resolving amphetamine withdrawal would also correspond with longer term abstinence outcomes. Can amphetamines treat ADHD in children? The 3-D structures of the catecholamines and amphetamine molecules reveal the long planar conformation that is common to all of these compounds. NET (noradrenaline transporter), DAT (dopamine transporter) and SERT (5-HT transporter). The average score in global state was reported in three of the four included studies. Two studies (Srisurapanont 1999b; Jittiwutikan 1997) used the Clinical Global Impression or CGI (Guy 1976) and one (Cruickshank 2008) used the Brief Symptom Inventory Global Severity Index sub scale or BSI‐GSI (Derogatis 1993) to measure global state. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (a form of psychotherapy) is effective in some patients. There are no proven pharmacologic treatments for rehabilitation and maintenance after detoxification.